How a boy life affected when raised without a father Essay

Both Wes Moores grew up without their produces in their lives. Wes Moores bring forth was restorationn away from him at an early age imputable to illness. His draw had acute epiglottitis. Until the death of Wes Moore he had a close relationship. While The some other Wes Moores father choice to be absent from his infants life. In the book we read that he tried to see The other Wes Moore iodin night, drunk and pound on his mothers doorsill demanding to see Wes, but after not attached access deep down he vanished from Wess life. Studies show that children with fathers at home tend to do check in school, ar less prone to depression and are much successful in relationships. Children from one-parent families achieve less and get into issue more than children from two parent families.Both children were forced to learn a lot at a immature age and in a way became the men of their households, in their fathers absences. Although because of the difference in their losses of their fathers the affects differed. The death of a parent female genitals really damage a child. At times it can compound just about everything about the child its future, its personality, its beliefs, its fears, its cravings, and how the child perceives the world itself. ending can traumatize anyone, but it is even more traumatic for a 6 year old boy. In the case of the other Wes Moore that had the father that didnt choice not to want part in his childs life it differs in the affects.Another study showed that 1,197 fourth-grade students were observed researchers that cerebrate the children that grew up without t greater levels of aggression in boys from mother-only households than from boys in mother-father households. This brings me to the effrontery that because of The Other Wes Moore choice to go down the wrong driveway due to the circumstances that had been placed in his life. He was only bound to go down the wrong path because he had never had a pricy father figure or fathe r in his life, while Wes Moore on the other hand had that. Wes Moore only had his father in his life for a short time period but yet a unchanging he had his father in life while The Other Wes Moore never did.Statistics support been quoted that the percentage of father absence homes isas high as 60%. However, these statistics do not reflect the number of fathers who are physically present in the homes but maybe emotionally, psychologically or spiritually absent. Which shows me that there are a lot of young men in the world being raised with a father, and I am certain all of them are not in prison either. Though the fountain in The Other Wes Moore believes that he is lucky, one would not refer to his accomplishments as luck. Both Wes Moores were prone confused chances, to go to school, continue on with their education, and get a job to provide their families. Although their stories were very similar by not having their fathers in their lives, or trusty males figure to guide th em and raise them to be men they choice diametrical paths in life.I believe that life is all about the choices you practise for yourself. Regardless of who is there to guide you. Yes, it may be harder to grow up fast and lead yourself down the serious path. But all is workable so luck really did not have much of a part to in the authors life. Wes Moore (the author) choice to make chances in his life for the better, he wanted better for himself and fought for it while The Other Wes Moore didnt. In some situations you are given many chances, others you are only given one. I feel as if smart, panorama out decisions are more beneficial for me than fast decision where I havent thought about the repercussions for my action.Therefore, I believe if I were in either of the Wes Moores places I would have looked at life and made the decision the author made rather than The Other Wes Moore. In life we are given more than just luck, but an opportunity, a chance to be better and do better ea ch and every twenty-four hours. It is up to one to take those chances. In their situations, it was obvious that they were looking for more than just luck at the time, school was not at the top of their to do list, working day and night at a job getting paid borderline wage wasnt either.Whats amazing about this story is their lives could have easily been the same, two successful men with stories to share with the world, together. Or both behind bars for the rest of their lives, perhaps even cell distich with it being ironic of them both having the same first and last depict as well as them heading down the same path at such a young age. Simply knowing the right from the wrong, even when times are hard. To make the right decision and take the right opportunity.Works CitedStatistics of a Fatherless America. _dads4kids.com._ Photius Coutsoukis, Copyright 1995-2002. Web. Revised 20-Jul-02. .N. Vaden-Kierman, N. Ialongo, J. Pearson, and S. Kellam, rest home Family Structure and Chi ldrens Aggressive Behavior A Longitudinal psychoanalyze of Urban Elementary School Children, _Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology_ 23, no. 5 (1995)._One Parent Families and Their Children The Schools Most Significant Minority,_ conducted by The kitty for the Study of School Needs of Children from One Parent Families, co sponsored by the National Association of Elementary School Principals and the Institute for Development of educational Activities, a division of the Charles F. Kettering Foundation, Arlington, VA., 1980

Negotiating Teams

What are the most heavy considerations in selecting a negotiation team? Give examples. Why is time an important consideration in international business enterprise negotiations. There are iv go that lead to more efficient and effective international business negotiations. The first step is to select an appropriate negotiation team. Successful globular business is dep lastent on a skillful international negotiator. A honourable negotiator should be mature, flexible, empathetic, emotionally stable, knowledgeable, optimistic, team player, good find outer, influential, and stick stamina.Probably the single most important quality needed for a negotiator is listening. A good negotiator must also be aware of cultural differences with whom they are negotiating. It is important to know the negotiating differences between passel intricate give care their language, values, non verbal behaviors, and decision making process. For example, the American kitchen-gardening is based on indep endence and individualism. Americans need to learn how be range of a team and use team assistance to be a successful negotiation team.Anformer(a) example, in regards to being a good listener, would be that someone on the negotiation team needs to ask information by taking good notes during meetings. It is very important that they listen carefully without speaking and interpret the needs of the people that they are negotiating with. Generally, see negotiators say that there is never enough time to prepare for negotiations. dozens of time is needed to assess the situation, assess the people you are negotiating with, collaborate facts, plan an agenda, think about possible agreements and strategies, and assign the team their responsibilities. contrasting cultures think differently on how their time is spent during negotiations. Some cultures like to structure negotiation time tackling all the issues at once and other cultures like to split up the issues and tackle them one at a tim e. Making sure that enough time is spent on each(prenominal) step of negotiations can vary from country to country. Time is an important figure to make sure that all four steps nontask sounding, task think information exchange, persuasion, and concessions and agreements all receive an appropriate amount of time give to each step.Certain cultures are more sensitive to time, like Americans, and if others involved in the negotiations dont keep appropriate timing to the start, during, and end of negotiations it may cause misunderstandings. Time is involved in all steps of international business negotiations and is very important consideration during the planning, during the process of negotiations, later the negotiations and related to cultural awareness.

Search of Identity in Society

Identity endure be gener eithery delineate as the personal characteristics and traits which several(predicate)iate each individual from the other, however in The myth of the Latin woman I just met a lady friend named Maria by Cofer, Judith Ortiz and The delight of reading and writing superman and me by Alexei Sherman, both authors demonstrate the theme identity operator in a different manner. Judith Cofer portrays how the society often stereotype individuals into groups without a doubt, in this particular essay, the un hands-down stereotype of Latino women without any particular reason but but due to their identity.Alexei Sherman in The joy of reading and writing superman and me in same(p) manner describes how society can have an impact on ones identity however Alexei was determined to build himself and challenge the society disrespect of its expectations. Similarities in this particular comparison overcome the differences the similarities which ar clearly seen amid these two short stories are how the society belittles people and stereotype them simply due to their identity. Another common theme between both stories is multiculturalism and how its faced.The difference however is how each author dealt with this stereotyping and how they defined their own identity despite of how people interrupted it for them. Expectations can alter the way a person feels about living their vivification the way they desire. Society determines and expects a role that every individual must perform according to who they are such as age, gender, race, ethnic etc. In the essay the The joy of reading and writing superman and me, the author talks about his animation as an Indian boy and how writing and reading shaped his life to what it is today.Sherman talks about how as an Indian boy living in a reservation in the United States, Indians were expected to fail and be uneducated but because he was smart, arrogant and lucky he bust the mold and became a creative writer. In Cofers case in that location were no molds to be broken but and societys perception about Latinas. She collects all the misconceptions of Latin women, study them with her personal experiences Our perception of anything can change and the way we view our selves can sometimes be altered by the events that happen in our life, our self-image and egoism can be as well as altered by these events too.Cofer, in her autobiographic short story describes how she feels like an object of sexual desire and a person of lower class because of her Puerto Rican ethnicity. She starts the essay by reliving an incidental which happened to her with a drunken man who re-enacted Maria from West Side write up even though she was aggravated, she tried to keep her cool when everyone around her was laughing and applauding. The author shows how the society degrades her because she is simply Latina regardless of the fact that is she an educated women seeking knowledge from Oxford university.Later she st ates, I do not wear my diplomas around my get it on- By this Cofer implies that there are many other women exactly like her, Latin women who do have the advantage of an education, however other individuals at heart societies racial misconceptions lead them to believe that every Latin woman is both a housemaid or a counter girl- which is patently not the case. Cofer continues to subjectively analyses and defends the negative stereotypes that Latin women encounter.Since something can be native in a determined culture and offensive in another, it is easy to find a variety of behaves that are misunderstood. This misunderstood is what promotes the existence of prejudice. She collects all the misconceptions of Latin women, comparing them with her personal experiences. Eventually the author tries to deliver a message, a universal truth, is to try to replace the old permeative stereotypes, individuals should not be judged entirely due to their place of origin, skin color, underscore o r cloths but should be seen for who they truly are.Cofer emphasizes that we cannot change this (the myth of Latina as whore, domestic or criminal) by legislating the way people whole tone at us the transformation, as I see it, has to occur at a much more individual level. Again this is something which is also seen in Shermans essay and its evident from his writing. Sherman says he precept the world in paragraphs, this is a metaphoric term he created.

Need for Accounting Standards Essay

Critic entirelyy evaluate the need for explanation standards and the need for a caboodle of principles on which they be based. accountancy StandardsAccounting standards contain a rate of rules and g everyplacening practices for the treatment of all pecuniary transactions. The main objective of write up standards is to establish recognition, measurement, proveation and disclosure requirements dealing with monetary transactions and pick out events which are strategic in the fiscal statements of companies. These pecuniary statements give end- habitrs important t from each oneing, as well as an in depth understanding slightly an brass instruments performance, position and cash flow. Some examples of customrs of fiscal statements embroil effectiveness investors, employees, suppliers and g everywherenment agencies. As much(prenominal), line relationship system of rules standards provide the basic exemplar for financial statements to be presented in a fair and credi ble manner, such that it reflects the sure overview of the financial status of an organization. These standards in like manner help to present financial statements in a standardized and coherent manner, so that end-users worldwide are able to extract learning and make decisions based on them.Advantages of Accounting StandardsOne advantage of having accounting standards is that it helps to ease the understanding of financial statements. What this meaning is that with accounting standards, financial statements reflect the financial position and status of an organization in a clear and coherent manner. With the need to publish financial statements in accordance to accounting standards, it also improves the credibility and dependability of the entropy present in the financial statements. End users, such as potential investors, top management and stakeholders, are able to make much apprised decisions with greater confidence based on the breeding extracted.Accounting standards a lso provides guidance for accountants in their line of work. When financial reporting issues arise, accountants may impact to published accounting standards to determine how to publish an event. Some examples of these issues include late accounting transactions and impudently actions incorporated by an organization. Since accounting standards work both as a annexe and a road map to accountants, this reiterates the transparency, reliability and credibility of financial statements when they are published based on a common accounting framework.Disadvantages of Accounting StandardsA disadvantage of utilise accounting standards is in its inflexibility. For example, an accountant working in an organization which complies with accounting standards efficacy find himself having a hard time in his line of work. This is because he has to make the organizations unique experience fit into the guidelines garb(p) out in published accounting standards. An other disadvantage of accounting st andards is in its cost to comply with the standard. When a company decides to comply with the new standard, it must first consider the requirements of the standard, and what actions the company must take to devour the standard and the cost to do so. In many cases, this proves to be real costly as implementing and complying with a new standard would require system upgrades and employee training.Principle-based StandardsPrinciple-based standards (PBS) is a framework of generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) which accountants use for financial reporting. Some examples of the guidelines found in PBS include regularity, consistency, sincerity, prudence, continuity, periodicity and clear upest faith. In PBS, an accountant follows these simple key objectives which help to ensure comfortably reporting. The rules and guidelines set out in PBS only serves as reference and guide the accountant when he is doing his financial reporting.Advantages* Flexible, its broad guidelines all ows it to be employ in various circumstances * Allows companies to produce financial report using a method that best suit them Disadvantage* Lack of guidelines could hire to variation in financial reporting, making it difficult in footing of equationRules-based StandardsRule-based standard (RBS) refers to a list of detailed rules that must be followed when preparing financial statements. The list of rules serves as a checklist when accountants position financial statements at the end of a companys fiscal year. This approach is more favoured by accountants because in preparing the financial reports by following the RBS checklist, it reduces the possibility of cosmos brought to court if their judgements of financial statements are found to be incorrect.Advantages* Having a delimit list of rules in preparing financial statement allows standardization, improving consistency which allows comparison between different companies * Easier to audit for compliance purposesDisadvantage* Having to follow a detailed set of rules results in rigidity, each transaction is accounted with respect to each rule. * Accountants have to comply to the rules set forth in RBS or exhibit penalties for non-compliance.ConclusionIn conclusion, at that place is a necessity for accounting standards when companies prepare their financial reports. monetary statements prepared based on accepted accounting standards not only gives users a detailed overview of the financial position of a company, that also assures users that the information they had obtained is reliable, credible and transparent.Question 2The world-wide Accounting Standards Boards modeling for the Preparation and Presentation of fiscal Statements requires financial statements to be prepared on the basis that they comply with legitimate accounting concepts, fundamental assumptions and (qualitative) propertys. Five of these are interconnected/accruals, substance over form, prudence, comparability and materiality. B riefly explain the mean of each of the above concepts/assumptions.IASB FrameworkThe International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) framework is drawn up and use in preparing and presenting financial statements. The framework was drawn up and approved in April 1989 and published in July 1989. It was adopted by the IASB in April 2001 and later in September 2010 the patternual Framework for Financial Reporting 2010 was approved by the ISAB. (Deloitte, 2012) The purpose of the framework is to lay down in the mouth guidelines to help ISAB shape the dressing and presentation of financial statements for end users.The IASB Framework acts as a guideline to the Board in establishing future frameworks and as well as a guide to solving accounting issues that are not addressed straight in an International Accounting Standard or International Financial Reporting Standard or Interpretation. The scope of the framework includes the objective of financial report, the qualitative characteristic o f useful financial information, the elements of financial statements and the measurement of the elements of financial statements. The focus would be on five of the many qualitative characteristics present in the IASB Framework. The five qualitative characteristics, namely matching/accruals, substances over form, prudence, comparability and materiality would be further discussed in detail as followsMatching/Accruals ConceptAccruals concept is an accounting method that measures the performance and position of a company by journaling economic events regardless of when cash transactions occur. fit in to this concept, the taxations and expenses are recognized when they are earned or incurred and not when developed money is received or p incite. The matching concept is an extension of the accruals concept, whereby revenue earned by the company and the expenses incurred by a company to earn that revenue has to be accounted in the same accounting period. For example, a business records its utility bills as soon as it receives them and not when they are paid, because the emolument has already been used. The company ignores the date when the payment will be do. content over FormSubstance over form is the concept that the information shown in the financial statements and accompanying disclosures of a business should reflect the underlying realities of accounting transactions, rather than the legal form in which they appear. This would result in a true view of the affairs of the entity to be presented. Substance over form is critical for reliable financial reporting, particularly in cases of revenue recognition, sales and purchase agreements. For example, a lease might not channelise ownership to the leasee but the leasee has to record the leased items as an asset if it intends to use it for major portion of its useful life or where the present look on of lease payment is fairly equal to the fair value of the asset, etc. Although legally the leasee is not the own er, so the leased item is not his asset, but from the perspective of the underlying economics the leasee is entitled to the benefits embedded in the use of the item and hence it has to be enter as an asset.Prudence ConceptThe prudence concept, also known as the concept of conservatism, refers to be awake when it comes to the recording of business transactions. It is stated that under the prudence concept, the amount of revenues recorded should not be overestimated neither should the amount of expenses be underestimated. One should be conservative in recording the amount of assets, and not underestimate liabilities. (Steven Bragg, 2011) In terms of profit and loss, anticipated profits cannot be recorded down as profits until they materialize. Some examples of exercising prudence is when companys inventory should be valued at cost or mart price, which is less, and a provision should set up for an allowance for probationary accounts.Comparability ConceptComparability is one of the k ey qualities which accounting information must possess. Accounting information is comparable when accounting standards and policies are use consistently from one period to another and from one region to another. The characteristic of comparability of financial statements is important because it allows us to compare a set of financial statements with those of prior periods and those of other companies. Financial statements of one entity must also be consistent with other entities within the same line of business.This should aid users in analyzing the performance and position of one company relative to the attention standards. It is therefore necessary for entities to adopt accounting policies that best reflect the live industry practice. For example, a company which sells mobiles phones values its inventory based on First In First Out (FIFO) method previously, it must reach out to do so in the future so as to spare consistency in the reported inventory balance. A switch to other methods may cause a shift in the value in the inventory, which results in lack of basis of comparability.Materiality ConceptIt is stated that information is material if its omission or misstatement could influence the economic decisions of users taken on the basis of the financial statements (IASB Framework) Materiality therefore relates to the significance of transactions, balances and errors contained in the financial statements. Materiality defines the threshold or cutoff point after which financial information becomes relevant to the decision making needs of the users.Information contained in the financial statements must therefore be complete in all material respects in order for them to present a true and fair view of the affairs of the entity. For example, the government of the country in which a company operates in working on a new commandment which would seriously impair the companys operations in future. Although there are no figures involved, but the implication on the c ompany would be so great that it would be material for this information to be made known to parties it may concern.ReferencesIASB Framework, 2012, http//www.ifrs.org/current-projects/iasb-projects/conceptual-framework/Pages/Conceptual-Framework-Summary.aspx (Cited 23 December 2012) Deloitte IAS Plus, History of IASB Framework, http//www.iasplus.com/en/standards/standard4 (Cited 23 December 2012) Steven Bragg, 13 March 2011, What is the prudence concept in accounting, http//www.accountingtools.com/questions-and-answers/what-is-the-prudence-concept-in-accounting.html (Cited 23 December 2012)

1984 George Orwell Dramatic performance analysis Essay

No angiotensin converting enzyme is free, even the birds be chained in the sky. Bob DylanA spot luminance moves through the audience, searching, staring deep into the minds of the victims as they sit unknowing of their fate. Democracy has fallen and there is no hope. The lights hap and there is silence. The stage is empty. long Br a nonher(prenominal) is watching.George Or well ups novel 1984 springs to sustenance with this stage adaptation presented by the highly entertaining theatre gild Shake and Stir. In the totalitarian society of 1984, lies, myths and false information say the population and this is portrayed beautifully in the theatrical presentation of the novel. 1984 tells the narrative of Winston, a man with no hope, the political let placey controls his life, his not his mind. He believes that the party is spreading false truths to retain power everyplace the people, and to rebel, he commits view crime by recalling and writing about taking squander the part y and destroying the power that they possess.Little does he know, the party is onto him. Orwell social functions this as a comparison to the real valet de chambre. It is his view that the If communist governments take over the world there will be no escape from their supreme rule. He instead believes in democratic socialism where there are even so free elections. Socialism stops privatization by establishing collective ownership of major(ip)(ip) actors of production. And if there is no privatization the theory is there will be no corruption.Well executed dramatic elements of map, mood and symbol, as well as the specialize and costumes of 1984 are what make it an outstanding piece of theatre and single that is effectively designed, not only through live presentation simply with the aid of audio and visual pre-recordings. Like Shake and Stirs previous Orwell reboot, Animal Farm, 1984 is presented through elements of realism as well as minimalism through the miming of objects a nd the use of imaginary targets.The roles in the performance are uniquely perplexed and different for each performer. Winston is not just the breaking wind character, tho besides a twisted representation of humanity, the real life population, and what we would do in that situation. His convincing portrayal surpassed any expectation. Theaudience watches Winston throughout the ply develop as a person as his scorn for The Party develops. In the beginning of the capriole Winston is personnel casualty through his free-and-easy routine, which involves falsely proclaiming love for the party, which helps him survive.As the play continues Winston loses all hope and his he begins to not care about getting caught. This character development is capture for the audience who identify Winston as the person they should emotionally connect with. The modest roles of Tom Parsons and Syme create an inte simplicitying feel to the play. Once they are killed finish or evaporated, they appear in a number of different roles much(prenominal) as guards in the Ministry of Love or policemen arresting Winston and Julia. This double use of cast members creates a simplistic feel that stops the play from change state overcrowded and complicated.Julias role in the performance plays a significant part, as she is the only female present throughout the play. Her personality screams hope for a better life in contrast to the other actors characteristics of doom, dismay or love for The Party. Julias development through the play is subtle nevertheless well executed. She begins as just another resident in Oceania provided transforms into the only symbol of confidence and hope presented in the show. This helps to further develop Winstons character by Julias influence rubbing forth on him. OBriens character is the final observable role in 1984. OBrien is an inner party member and the only one the audience physically witnesses.For all we know, he could run the whole operation, as he see ms to be very powerful when Winston is in the Ministry of Love by even showing mind reading powers. OBrien is different to the other characters not only in his physical stature and age (being distinguishably older) but also in his appearance. He wears a suit but in the same uniformed overall fashion as the rest of the cast. This part of the role represents his power (the suit) while calm down being controlled by Big Brother (the work overalls). The significance of the hierarchy is fundamental to Orwells report that Winston has no power and even inner party members are not fully in control.The mood in 1984 explodes in the audiences face from the primary second. Despair, heartbreak, torture and tyranny were feelings that the audience was expected to feel during the performance. The dark set aided the mood in itsendeavor to achieve these feelings. The tension was explicit as soon as Julia and Winston started their romance with hovered movements and purposefully dropped lines playin g a pivotal role. Not only was there sexual tension in the midst of the couple but tension created by the held doubt for the pair to needs get caught. The audience was mesmerized by the fact that the pair could vex their secret love affair and not be found out. each time they practiced thought crime, the audience would think this is it, they are going to be captured. But only when audience members feel as if perhaps they will get away with it do they violently get captured. This suspense is what gives the play its spine tingling mood.Not only was the mood set to entice and intrigue audience members, 1984 also made people think with its deep and meaningful symbolisation. The sash that Julia wore was meant to be for the Anti Sex unite, but it had so much more meaning than this. It was a distinguishing factor between her and the men that surrounded her. It was also a reason for Winston to reflexion at her and therefore fall in love with her. But the major symbolism behind the sa sh was her defiance against Big Brother. When she wore it she seemed different and interesting, she stood out from the bland background from which she dwelled and that was why it was significant. From the very start of the show, symbolism was period through each individuals mind subconsciously. The spot light at the start of the show, symbolized Big Brothers watch over the people and in this case, the audience. It may not harbour seemed significant, but it was qualification an impression in the audiences heads before they even knew what the play was about.Props were also used emblematically. The notebook that Winston wrote in was a symbolic way to spew his thoughts onto paper and for the audience to audibly hear what Winston was thinking. This was coercive for the narrative to add extra meaning and depth. The last section of symbolism in 1984 was the dwell that Winston rented out. It was an oasis, an escape from the torture that was life. The room was lit brighter than the res t of the set and felt warm and comforting it was a last nip at a previous life, one without Big Brother. The authenticity of the room gave it contrast from the rest of the set made it stand out that undersize bit more, but it was inevitably the downcastfall of Winston and Julias relationship. This irony was well mastered and presented by the cast.Not all creative prowess was ground on the characters in 1984. The set was outstanding in creating an environment that really did feel smear apocalyptic. Not only did it have the rotating part to subject up into a different room but also it be multi-purposeful. It advertd as a jail, a lonely street, the comforting home and a torture cell as well as the woods, all without ever-changing the background. This was possible because of the creative genius that was the television screens. They completely revolutionized the feel of the play and created a strong atmospheric impression upon the audience. Not only did they serve as a look into W instons mind but they also painted a beautiful picture of his dreams. As well as being a depiction of Winston, they portrayed security cameras and television screens to fire the story even further. This technological addition to the performance made the already insightful story even more profound.Shake and Stir have done an inestimable justice to Orwells 1984. With the role of characters structurally thought-out down to the finest points, the mood was set and designed to divide the minds of audiences and make them question cosmos at the present. They created symbolism that was insightful and thought provoking while still being detectable. Stunningly raw sets merged with large screens that created a post apocalyptic world in front of the eyes of viewers. Audience members digress the theatre wonderingIs Big Brother watching?

Ethnomethodology and symbolic interaction perspectives differ in their approach Essay

Ethno orderology and symbolicalalal fundamental fundamental inter march perspectives differ in their approach. excuse how these perspectives differEthnomethodology and Symbolic fundamental interaction be close to(prenominal) sub-categories in the mixer theory of interaction. interactionism focuses on the details of wads daily lives and how people use symbolism to communicate alone alike to maintain our constituent and the impression others dumbfound of us as item-by-items. two perspectives battleground corresponding fibers of loving interaction and whole step at behavioral and neighborly norms in modern society. However they differ slightly in both(prenominal) their approach to analyzing favorable norms only if also have antithetical perspectives on the basis of modern affectionate norms.Symoblic interaction studies and theorises the personal manner in which separates in society act towards each other based on the convey that they have for different actions and processes. The import we attach to certain actions is the product of the individuals previous fond interaction and thence the individual continues to bag and modify their own interpretation during all their mixer encounters. One of the induction theorists of the symbolic interaction was Herbert Blumer and he pointed that we attach meaning to the actions of other individuals and therefore we do not wholly respond to the actions of the individual but also to the meaning we attach to that action. thitherfore people behave and react, in social interaction, because of what they look at and not by what is taking place at the time. then the construction of society is based on human interpretation of social action and therefore social bonds be only organise by two individuals interpretation of behaviour.The theory and meaning of Ethnomethodology can be formed by breaking down the word into its component parts. Ethno meaning people, method meaning method and ology meaning t he culture of makes Ethnomethodology the study of the method of people. A better description of the theory is the study of society in bothday life and the analysis of the use of knowledge, actions and interpretations in social situation. Ethnomethodlogists ar concerned in understanding how an individual makes sense of the social creation and is link up to phenomenology. Harold Garfinkel wildnessed the use of language and communication as way of analysing the way people make sense of their environment.This focus on language and communications devolves us one of the key differences in the approach of both theories. Whilst Ethnomethodology puts dialect on the federal agency of language and communication, symbolic interaction puts greater emphasis on actions and interpretations of the individual in social interaction.The nature of meaning of social interaction is fundamental in both symbolic interaction and ethnomethodology. The definition of meaning and how it used and analysed is considerably different between the two perspectives. In symbolic interaction meaning is the interpretation pull up stakesn by the mover to the setting they are in therefore the meaning is the product of the individuals social interactions but is interpreted on during the interaction. Blumer says meanings are handled in, and special through, an interpretative process used by the person in dealing with the things he encounters1. Despite ethnomethodologists agreeing with symbolic interactionists that meaning is formed in social interaction they differ in the fact that they insist that meanings only be in certain circumstances and that developing and changing through differing forms of social interaction.This difference in the interpretation of meaning results in different views on certain types of research method and what data is used and the validity of that data. In ethnomethodology the focus is put on the social interaction or communication, they are studying, whilst it tak es place and therefore video recording, live observation and audio recordings are used as the key methods of research and analysis. However in symbolic interaction there is frequently more focus put on field notes and post social interaction recollections such as interviews and free radical discussions which in the field of symbolic interaction is valid enough to earnings the point of view of the operator. This is in stark contrast to ethnomethodology who call back that the actors point of view is irrelevant in sociological study. There is much criticism of the symbolic interactionist method as there is no set structure in their methodsand they rely heavily upon the actor to give his or her point of view which is considered not valid by the ethnomethodologists.Both the theories have different perspectives on the role of the actor in a social interaction and he or she makes sense of their setting. Symbolic interactionists swear that the individual is the fundamental part to th e processes and meaning of social interaction. Roles and identities are therefore attributed by the actor in social interaction and the social interaction happens in an internalised orientation where the actor can also take on the role of the other and has appreciation for the role of the other. Ethnomethodology has an alternative theory to the role of the actor and disagrees entirely with the role of the actor that is given by symbolic interactionists. Counter to symbolic interaction theory, ethnomethodology suggests that is not the actor that dictates the setting and meaning of a social interaction quite a that the setting is self-organised and that organisation gives the roles of the actors and the others rather than it being chosen by their own consciousness. As well as this ethnomethodologists rarely refer to the actor in social interaction but rather chose to refer to each individual as a component. As such the members in a social interaction do not build it themselves rathe r they develop a product of the interaction, this is in contrast to symbolic interaction where the actor builds the interaction from the inner self.In symbolic interaction each social interaction happens in a particular scope and this can either be a place context or a professional context. All contexts in symbolic interaction can be defined using ethnographic investigation by studying the context features of that interaction. Ethnomethodologists on the other hand believe that context is a product of the interaction and that any contextual features of an interaction are not soak up beforehand but become clear during the interaction. Ethnomethodoligists such as Garfinkel do not believe that the symbolic interactionisms view of context does not give and accurate description of every form of interaction and therefore the use of context in Ethnomethodology is only when an extra interactional feature.Ethnomethodologists study behavioural norms not only by looking at the individual i nteractions, like symbolic interaction, but by attempting to break these norms and studying how society and the individual react. Through this theory Ethnomethodologists believe you get a clearer consensus of what is the norm as people find it ambitious to describe what is the norm as most of it is in the sub-conscious.Ethnomethodlogists believe that it is only when these norms and behavioural patterns are broken that the norms become more apparent as people are not become accustomed to react to the parvenu form of behaviour. A famous example of this method was when college students in the US were asked to act like guests in their own homes. They were told to be impersonal but formal and to study the reaction of their parents and family. After explaining the experiment to their parents many parents exposit different reactions. Some parents believed they wanted something, others thought it was a joke and some believed they were hiding things. This experiment allowed the students t o see that even informal norms that we take for minded(p) in the home are carefully structured and by disrupting these norms they become clearer.However Ethnomethodology and Symbolic Interaction do have their similarities and despite their different approaches they do study the alike body politic from similar perspectives. Both theories study the micro world of interaction theory and despite the fact that both are criticised for having a very narrow field of research they do look at very similar things. Although there is one area in which symbolic interaction is studied in the macro world and that is in Goffmans study of ritual. Despite the fact that both theories study the perspective from the micro world, Ethnomethodology is rarely studied outside of two areas, the first-year being the household and the second being conversational. Ethnomethodology puts great emphasis on the role of communication in social interaction and therefore limits the field of study they can look at. S ymbolic interaction covers a much broader field of study in the micro world. It does not only look at communicational interaction but also at the action and interpretation of the forms of social interaction.In conclusion it is obvious that these perspectives differ on how theyapproach the subject of social interaction but there differences do not mean that they are not very similar field of study. Mary Gallant suggests that both ethnomethodology and symbolic interactionism share a verstehen2 approach and that they both interpret behaviour by taking actors meanings into history3. However where they differ is in their approach to the topic of social interaction and therefore they gain different kinds of understanding due to the fact that they are seeking answers to different questions. This is due to the fact that Ethnomethodology studies social interaction from a largely phenomenological4 viewpoint and looks at how individuals look at the original world with particular focus on com munication and speech. Whereas symbolic interactionism is part of the critical tradition5 and looks more at how people give meaning to the world around them. Despite the fact that as Dennis suggest the Ethnomethodological approach means that the symbolic interactionists focus on actor, meaning and context is unnecessary6 it does see it as a valid sociological perspective7. So although there are many differences in the perspectives the theories have on social interaction they do have similar ways of looking at the world and they do both study the same micro field of sociology.Word Count 1675Bibliography1. Blumer, Herbert. Symbolic interactionism Perspective and method. Univ of calcium Press, 1986.2. Dennis, Alex. Symbolic Interactionism and Ethnomethodology. Symbolic Interaction 34.3 (2011) 349-356.3. Denzin, Norman K. Symbolic interactionism and ethnomethodology A proposed synthesis. American Sociological Review (1969) 922-934.4. Gallant, Mary J., and Sherryl Kleinman. SYMBOLIC INT ERACTIONISM VS ETHNOMETHODOLOGY. Symbolic Interaction 6.1 (1983) 1-185. Goffman, Erving. Interaction ritual Essays in face to face behavior.Aldine Transaction, 2005.6. Mead, George Herbert. Mind, self, and society From the standpoint of a social behaviorist. Vol. 1. University of Chicago press, 2009.

Just in Time Essay

Students will respond to the chaseDiscuss the pros and cons of a JIT alliance from a suppliers guide of view and a buyers point of view.The con of the JIT relationship is that problems would occur if the company has sudden breaks to service and the supply. This may lead to ram strikes, and then eventually a failed business. A pro of the JIT relationship would be saving cost by not having unnecessary inventories. Also another(prenominal) attribute is flexibility, allowing the company to answer.Analyze the short and long-term consequences that could come from implementing this JIT relationship. The short-term consequence of implementing JIT would be the cost that ties into the culture evolving, training staff on problem solving. The long-term consequence of JIT is improving the quality of the product on with the delivery of it. Once customers realize the proficiency of the company with its product that leads to a chance of a larger profit.Discuss what factors Dixon and D&S shoul d get by before making a decision on this relationship. In regards to factors that Dixon and D&S should consider before making a decision is 1.Improved Quality- measuring the quality of service, timeliness, service consistency and courtesy. 2.Utilizing Multifunction Workers Assist with improving quality and customer service. 3.Reduced Turn Around time The competition is steady among companies that provide services, so a company that uses JIT concepts reduces the turnaround time and increase their speed.

Legaliza of Medical Marijuana

engagement 2 Write your outline for your research paper by filling out the following template. Outline Topic Should Marijuana Be Legalized For aesculapian Purposes Introduction Thesis Statement Medical marijuana should be legalized merely in the strict control of the doctor. Paragraph 1 pro 1 Idea(s) to be developed marijuana can relieve certain types of pain. prove/Examples The evidence is overwhelming that marijuana can relieve certain types of pain, nausea, vomitive and other symptoms ca utilize by such illnesses as multiple sclerosis, malignant neoplastic disease and AIDS.Source(s) used Joycelyn Elders, Mar. 26, 2004 Paragraph 2 PRO 2 Idea(s) to be developed Its a matter between doctors and patients. take the stand/ExamplesIf doctors believe that it does help, and will be serviceable to the patient, they have the right to appoint it Source(s) used Aug. 9, 2007 Dennis Kucinich Paragraph 3 PRO 3 Idea(s) to be developed Marijuana clearly has medicinal value. depict/Examp les Thousands of seriously ill Americans have been able to determine that for themselves, albeit illegally. Source(s) used 1999 Lyn NofzigerParagraph 4 PRO 4 Idea(s) to be developed Study of marijuana . register/Examples I have found in my study of these patients that cannabis is in reality a safe, effective and non-toxic alternative to many standard medications. There is no such thing as an overdose. Source(s) used Nov. 17, 2005 Philip Denney, MD Paragraph 5 PRO 5 Idea(s) to be developed Cannabis is remarkably safe. Evidence/Examples Although not harmless, it is surely less toxic than most of the conventional medicines it could supervene upon if it were legally available.Source(s) used 1 oct. 2007 Lester Grinspoon, MD Paragraph 6 take 1 Idea(s) to be presented It is addictive. Refutation Marijuana is not the safe medicine portrayed by the marijuana lobby. It is addictive it adversely affects the immune dust leads to the use of other drugs such as cocaine is linked to cases of cancer causes respiratory diseases, mental disorders, including psychosis, depression, panic attacks, hallucinations Source(s) usedOct. 1, 2004 Janet Lapey, MD

Degree Appraisals Essay

General Electrics Durham, North Carolina conference employees control a unique work environment in which they pretend the GE90 jet engine for Boeing. The 9 engine build teams consist of well-nigh 18 employees who own the entire process of assembling nigh 10,000 move perfectly to progress to one complete engine assembly. The teams ar egotism managed, doing everything from ordering parts and tools to scheduling vacation and overtime. The success of the teams comes from their founding rule of agreement by consensus decisions making. In fact, the consensus decision making process has perish a way of life to many of these employees, and management decisions argon scarcely needed about 12 decisions per year. Although employees dont always have unanimous agreement, there is seldom any blame when things go reproach because of their toughened trusting relationships. This type of consensus management has instilled a high level of trust relationships among the team members and thei r superiors.These self-managed teams operate in a culture of continuous feed hindquarters and rely on management to brace them aw are of problems and report solutions. beyond the day-to-day decisions making, any major issues, such as safety and cost, are decided by a parturiency force. The plant manager informs and educates the tax force and employees about the problem and why it is important, and the occupation force decides how to lead problems. The task force takes the responsibility to find solutions and decisions are reporting back to plant management on what the future solutions testament be.These solutions and decisions made by the task force are communicate to the plant manager and and so on to the higher-ups for their buy in. The Plant Manager Paula Sims, who has been on the job 4 years, has proposed to HR that she would like initiate a 360- period review to supplement alive capital punishment whole tones. Ms. Sims final cause is met with some concerns from HR, it is assumed that HR has concerns that implementing a revolutionary system without a consensus decision will breakdown trust with the employees and ascertain the willing participation if the 360 review were to be implemented.Root ProblemThe root problem with Ms. Sims proposal is that the carrying out goes localizely a attractst the culture of consensus agreement on making decisions for the teams and the plant. Since this would be considered a major change, it should be brought to a task force for review and solution, or at minimum be brought to the vigilance of all employees. In the past, Ms. Sims has experienced issues of missed trust with the assembly teams and this direct approach with HR for the implementation a new performance measure stands to have an equally negative effect.Alternative IdeasIn order to send for the root problem, HR would like to propose some ersatz ideas to Ms. Sims proposals that could acknowledge awareness of GE corporate use general of 360 degree p erformance measures in other locations. Investigations on the benefits from other GE plants should be presented to employees to gain a better understanding and buy-in of the proposal. Knowing the culture of feedback that exist deep down the plant, Ms. Sims could call for a task force to investigate the benefits of 360 degree feedback and make a direction decision on the use of 360 degree appraisals. In consideration of substitute(a) ideas, Ms. Sims should consider approaching the employees and HR by providing real knowledge about the value of mates reviews. For example, research shows that appraisals by peers are useful predictors of instruction success and future performance (Jackson, S.E., Schuler, R.S., & Werner, S., 2012).Additionally, since the GE employees are team-based units, it is also been shown that anonymous peer appraisals in teams increase interpersonal effectiveness, assembly cohesion, communication openness and group satisfaction (Jackson, et al, 2012). Furthe rmore, she could gain more leverage by stating the success of the peer reviews in other GE facilities, as real life inter-company example. The last alternative is simply do nobody and keep the trustworthy system as it is without a 360 degree review. Considering Ms. Sims ratiocination to implement the new appraisal, she should consider a trial arse with a one the nine teams as a running bedfrom instruct implementation and use of the 360 review. As multiple alternatives have been presented, a close set(predicate) evaluation of each proposal is the necessary to derive the what is believed to the best alternative. 1. sensation and Buy-in this alternative looks at bringing awareness to the 360-degree appraisal as a supplemental appraisal by providing factual information on the benefits of the political program at GEs jet engine plant.Awareness makes buy-in easier when at the end of the day, you allow the teams to make a decision by consensus on the implementation of the new pee r review. 2. Empowered team decision this alternative simply turns the information and decision back to the team and task force. This alternative is the most cohesive alternative and aligns well with the culture of the company. 3. Trial basis this alternative assume Ms. Sims pushes her idea forward and assumes she will be met with some resistance during the implementation phase. In this case focusing on a smaller beta test group proves to be easier to manage and create buy-in with when the results show positive improvements. 4. Status Quo this alternative assumes that nothing is done, no implementation is agreed upon and the current performance measures stay in place without a 360-degree appraisal.Choose an Alternative & ImplementationIn an effort to maintain the strong trusting relationships that exist at the various levels of team members and management, it is recommended that the alternative proposal of awareness and buy-in be selected and acted upon. Implementation of this pl an will begin with Ms. Sims put in and presenting data from both internal GE resources and external resources to show the benefits of supplementing the current performance appraisals with a 360-degree peer review. Next Ms. Sims must work flat with HR to plan an appropriate training point and plan in conjunction with the roll out of information to the 9 assembly teams. This stack of the preparation should include the consideration of one group to be the test bed or beta group for evaluation purposes. Once the information is presented to all the employees, an internal task force should be commissioned to measure the information provided by Ms. Sims for the purpose my allowing the continuance of the consensus culture.There are a multitude of options this management team has in considering the addition of the new peer review. However,allowing the teams and/or special task force to make the decision on their own and continue to feel the sense of ownership is paramount in the impleme ntation phase of the proposal. Therefore it is recommended that after the beta group is selected and effectively trained, HR and Ms. Sims must monitor the effectiveness of the raters over an initially shorter period of time for the appraisals to take place.This step will be for the purpose of training and evaluation. Based the results from the six months data collection and feedback from the Beta group, Ms. Sims and HR will determine if further training is needed, if the employees are seeing value in the productivity and performance improvements as a result of using the 360 degree appraisals. If the results are positive the information will be shared with the task force and all employees for further implementation and training, beyond the beta group. bring upJackson, S.E., Schuler, R.S., & Werner, S (2012). Managing Human Resources (11th edition)., Mason, OH South-Western

Full Time Job Narrative Essay

I had just graduated from high drill a typical Santa Barbara local, with ambitions of attending SBCC. I always did fairly tumesce in school, just now was definitely more concerned with how the waves were breaking, instead how of my grades were. That exclusively changed on June 15th. I got a c all(a) in all from a family friend asking if I would be interested in a summer seam at a shipping warehouse in Carpinteria. My parents had been nagging me daytime in and day out to get a summer job, so this counted so perfect. I accepted the job and my friend let me hunch I should show up at 730 Monday first light for my first day of rub down.That Monday morning, I woke up late and stumbled out of bed, threw on some clothes and was out the door with no time for breakfast. I will never forget that car ride down to Carpinteria, and the ardent feelings I felt in my stomach. My mind was racing in a million different directions and I really had no idea what I was in for. Pulling up to the warehouse, I remember the c white-haired top blowing across my face, the distinct smell of ocean heavy in the air, and the waver of the State Park flags in the distance.The job description my friend gave me everywhere the phone didnt really stress how labor intensive it would be, so my first day I was in for quite a surprise. all in all day I was packing and carrying 60-70 lbs packages and not a minute went by where I didnt regret taking my new job offer. much(prenominal) to my surprise, my coworkers were all much older than me, and it was somewhat depressing to see stack my parents and grandparents age doing such laborious work. One of my coworkers was an older woman named Maria, who clear up of acted like the mother around facility.She didnt speak the best of English, but despite that, we quickly became friends, and shortly thereafter Maria began giving me all sorts of advice and pointers she thought would benefit me in life. Once she found out how old I was, she asked what my plans for school were. I let her know school wasnt something I was too worried about but that I would be attending City College in the fall. The look on her face was unforgett up to(p). She looked grit at me and said Sammy, School is the most important thing in your life.Maria went on to say look around you all these people have sad expressions on their faces. They didnt have the hazard you are blessed with. You need to realize school will premise you to a more successful and happy life. That day on the compel home I looked out at the ocean and thought how delicate it would be to have zero obligations anymore and just be able to hangout at the beach. It was at that moment that I actually agnise that any dream is completely unachievable without vision, determination and hard work. by and by my three months were up, my mindset towards school had completely changed. Marias wrangling burned into my head that -I no longer thought of myself as a lazy surfer who just wanted the bare minimum, but earlier as a determined young student. School used to seem like an inevitable obstacle you had to endure, but now I actually see the importance and value of an education. While I admired the work ethic of the people I worked with in the warehouse, I know that through with(predicate) higher education, there is better future for me.

Health and safety responsibilities at work Essay

Client Duties The Client is an individual or an organisation that has braid fit on carried let on as part of their business. Clients duties should have a role of an in trust to reward part in or to take action which is to have responsibilities of having wellness and safety device signs in places most the manifestation settle at all(a) times, they should similarly be able to get word that they have welf argon facilities such as washing facilities, dining direction where the employers can have their time to read newspapers, eat or drink, they also bring to have a first aid room where at that place is first-aid box, whereas there should be a appointed person at all times to take charge of first-aid arrangements and also there should be a person to take d declare all the information for all employees expectant details of first-aid arrangements. Clients should also stomach exist ara for emergency exists conscionable in case if there is a fire issue on or some kind o f an emergency which has taken part on the come extinct, so it can be easy for all the employers to get out of the turn of events aim. A client essential assign information at all times about what is happening in the construction web spot and about how stuff are going on the location.Under construction and design management regulation their wellness and safety responsibilities are at a lower place To visualise that the attaining condition is with experience to health and safety is in the place To operate that the planned work is not going to put others at risks To check the superpower and the resources of all appointments such as designers and etc They essential ensure that the construction work doesnt begin unless a construction plan is in the place with the services they need and also the facilities are on the site To hold up update and give access to the health and safety for the shed To give all the information connecting to the health and safety policy to th e CDM coordinatorThe briny Contractors Main motherors are the employers, which holds the most significant take in/agreement of the building plan and a main contractile organ is normally in charge to supply of what is needed on the construction site such as equipment, tools, materials, vehicle and etc. They should make sure they declare contractors and ensure authorised access is only on site with the credential guards at the gate and making sure at least cardinal security guards are always in the place.The main contractor must Main contractor must plan, manage and monitor their work and the workers Main contractor must coach and train their own employees so they cognize what they are doing Main contractor should provide information to their workers Main contractor must provide all the information needed for the health, accidents and safety dialogue that lead to health and safety Main contractor must ensure there are enough clean welfare facilities for their workers on the si teSubcontractors A subcontractor is a person who is made-up to follow an existing contract which is to verbalize out a piece or all of the compulsion that he/she has given to do by the principle or ecumenic contractor. Subcontractors must be given a site introduction, to reduce the expenses or relieve the danger of something happening in the project. An experienced individual assists them to neat the regulation of health and safety which is under COSHH which means Control plaza Hazardous to wellness. They are there to ensure that they have a lick system and statements to give workers with risk assessment because it will help out to put up signs and fences such as Silt fence so the people there would know that there is a hazard work which is not finished as they will be signs hanged on the site and it will help them from their life been at risk.Subcontractors need to Subcontractor must provide details to the main contractor and also provide information to the health and safety policy Subcontractor must inform main contractor about hazards, risks and etc on the site in order to carry out everything safely A subcontractor must carry out regular talks A subcontractor must co operate with others and co ordinate workThe HSE Health and caoutchouc Executive HSE is in charge to help the regulation by law and its enforcement. There are lots of types of HSE like there are several jobs that can transmit to HSE. HSE was created by the health and safety work at 1974 act. They are mainly set up to have effect over health and safety to stop injuries happening on site and making sure more employers and workers on the construction site are safe and they have no risk. They are out there to carry out guides so that they can turn out guides on how to do possessions or use in a safe manner so they can change the law. They role is to go on a construction site, give out instructions and guides to the workers that put ont obey with the rules/law, that is when the enforcem ent aggroup comes in to handle the work on site it would either be given a advance notices which is a warning so they dont do it again and also they might get extrusion notice which means they might have to closed down the site work.The HSE Health and Safety Executive must The HSE must perform health and safety inspection visits sometimes in a week The HSE (Health and Safety Executive ) must ensure that HSE conditions are displayed on site at all times The HSE must prevent from injuries and deaths from incident The HSE must ensure that all the incidents and accidents are investigated as soon as possible local anaesthetic liberty Local authority is governmental aspect of neighbourhood management. It is the local committee who are the local council of that particular borough or neighbourhood who do the setting up consent as they work mostly on roads, highway and motorway protection which means they have to interchange business lights or block some lines of the motorway or road s, they have to do it in such a way to create it safer in the region and they also have to protect the surroundings areas of the region similarly if there is a waterway close by so just in case no other risky chemicals can go inside the waterway and cause to kill the nature or the wildlife.Local strength must Local office staff must planned that the work which is going to take place is not going to put others people around the region or the environment at risk Local Authority must make sure that the noise level is acceptable during the project Local Authority must be working in conditions with regard to health and safety are in place Local Authority must ensure that the project plan is safety proposition and is legitimate and agreed by the local authorityCDM Construction Design steering Coordinator CDM are there to make sure that the designers are alert of their own duties, to support the client pleasing his duties. Also making sure that the health & safety file is given over to the client and he holds keep of it. They are to progress setting up the project. They advise the clients on the ability with the needs of dealings and also to ensure that the designers, contractors, principle of the project and etc work with each other in the project, making sure everything goes according to how its need to be done.CDM Construction Design Management Coordinator must CDM must communicate HSE and obtain approvals CDM must prepare health and safety files CDM must forgather all the info that is needed CDM must keep a communicating between the designer, client and the contractors at all times

Gender Differences in Peer and Parental In?uences: Body Image Disturbance

Journal of offspring and Adolescence, Vol. 33, No. 5, October 2004, pp. 421429 ( C 2004) sexual practice Differences in Peer and P arntal In? uences carcass see to it Disturbance, Self-Worth, and psychological Functioning in Pre jejune youngsterren Vicky Ph ars,1 Ari R. Steinberg,2 and J. Kevin Thompson3 Received April 17, 2003 revised January 20, 2004 accepted February 11, 2004 The connelectroconvulsive therapyions amongst corpse corporeal dust interference and psychological carrying into action claim been tumesce established in take ins of older stripling girls and school dayboyish women. Little is cognise, however, virtu twoy bole enter in jr. children.In particular, little is known to the highest pointedness possible sexual practice differences in pre insipid children. The catamenia schooling explored self-report remains hear overturn and psychological functioning in semblance to catch and agnate in? uences in 141 elementary school-aged girls and boys aged 811. Results imply that girls be to a greater extent concerned around dieting and atomic number 18 to a greater extent preoccupied with their exercising burden than be boys. Girls besides account a great capture for sparseness and a high send of family explanation of consume concerns than did boys.Cor dealings adverted that girls experiences of trunk send off concerns ( trunk dissatisfaction, bulimia, and drive for thinness) were link up to a return of factors (such as family write up of take in concerns, fellow in? uences, teasing, depression, and spheric self-worth) whereas boys experiences of consistence watch concerns were tie in to fewer factors. On the basis of these ? ndings, the assessment and interference of luggage compartment get wind concerns in pre juvenile children (especially girls) are of great importance. Implications for hindrance and prevention programs are discussed. KEY WORDS personate show peers parents.The preval ence of pietism and dust discover concerns among pre insipid children is overwhelming. Between 30 and 50% of insubstantial girls are either concerned about their exercising tip down or are actually dieting (e. g. , Thompson and 1 Vicky Phares, Ph. D. is a Professor and handler of clinical Training at the University of South Florida. She received her Ph. D. in Clinical psychological science from the University of Vermont. Her major interrogation interests are fathers and exploitational psychopathology. She recently published a textbook, Understanding Abnormal squirt Psychology with Wiley and Sons.To whom correspondence should be channeliseed at University of South Florida, Department of Psychology, 4202 E. Fowler Avenue, PCD 4118G, Tampa, Florida 33620 e-mail emailprotected cas. usf. edu. 2 Ari R. Steinberg, Ph. D. charter from the University of South Florida, where she earned her M. A. in Psychology and her Ph. D. in Clinical Psychology. Her major investigate inter ests are cognitive and psycho companionable correlates to the stand upment of remains image e-mail emailprotected cas. usf. edu. 3 J. Kevin Thompson, Ph. D. is a Professor of Psychology at the University of South Florida.He received his Ph. D. in Clinical Psychology from the University of Georgia. His major research interests are physical structure image and consume disorders. Smolak, 2001). Such concerns about size of it and/or appearance become been install to predict onset of ingest disturbances prospectively (Cattarin and Thompson, 1994 Stice, 2001). Although intimately of the previous research on eating disorders has foc apply on self-aggrandizing women and adolescent girls, it has recently been shown that pitch concerns and dust image disturbance experience in juvenilityer girls and boys (Cusumano and Thompson, 2001 Field et al. 2001 Ricciardelli and McCabe, 2001 Ricciardelli et al. , 2000 VanderWal and Thelen, 2000). Self-esteem concerns appear to be link up t o body image disturbance in puppyish children, merely in that location does not appear to be a causal link among self-esteem and body image disturbance (Mendelson et al. , 1996). Speci? cally, body image disturbance and poor self-esteem appear to develop con newly in young boys and girls. Given these important issues, the on-line(prenominal) issue attempted to examine the psychological, familial, and social correlates of clog concerns and eating disturbances in preteen girls and boys. 21 0047-2891/04/1000-0421/0 C 2004 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc. 422 BODY IMAGE AND DIETING bearing IN ADOLESCENTS AND CHILDREN The connections in the midst of body image disturbance and psychological maladjustment in adolescence gull been soundly documented. in that respect appears to be pervasive concerns among adolescents with respect to their weight, body image, dieting, and eating behavior (Smolak and Levine, 2001 Thompson et al. , 1999). In fact, averageweight adolescent girls are almost as apt(predicate) to be dieting as their overweight peers (Rodin et al. , 1985).These patterns are spare in some(prenominal) clinical and nonclinical ingests. Bunnell et al. (1992) investigated body precondition concerns among 5 hears of female person person adolescents anorexia nervosa clients, bulimia nervosa clients, subclinical anorexia, subclinical bulimia, and noneating garbled females. They found that body watch dissatisfaction was a prominent concern for most adolescent girls unheeding of their level of eating pathology. Thus, by the time of adolescence, the legal age of girls have developed weight and body concerns and many have tried dieting or different strategies to alter their physical appearance.Although these issues have received less research heed in preadolescent children, many of the same patterns have emerged in studies of younger children. Children as young as 6 years old extinguish dissatisfaction with their body and a substantial amount (40%) have attempted to miss weight (Thelen et al. , 1992). at that place is evidence that children as young as 7 are reliable in their reports of dieting (Kostanski and Gullone, 1999). In a sample of thirdthrough sixth-graders, children were very knowledgeable about weight aver methods (Schur et al. , 2000). tree trunk dissatisfaction appears to be related to dietary restraint rather than age. In a subject see that compared 9-year-olds and 14-year-olds, girls with highly restrained eating patterns in both age groups showed moo body esteem, and discontent with their body shape and weight (Hill et al. , 1992). Consistent with research on adolescents and young self-aggrandizings, young girls tend to show this dissatisfaction to a greater extent than boys. In samples of children in the midst of the ages of 5 and 11 (Collins, 1991 Cusumano and Thompson, 2001 Williamson and Delin, 2001 Wood et al. 1996), girls inform signi? cantly greater body dissatisfaction than did boys. Mo re girls than boys were dieting in a sample of 1012 year olds (Sands et al. , 1997). Thus, the normative discontent that is shown in adolescent girls and young women (Rodin et al. , 1985) appears to be present in younger girls as well. familial INFLUENCES ON BODY IMAGE A logical question relates to why these body image disturbances occur in such young children. Theories of Phares, Steinberg, and Thompson body image disturbance include biological, sociocultural, familial, and peer-related in? ences (Smolak and Levine, 2001 Steinberg and Phares, 2001). upstartly, a great patronage of attention has been focused on familial and peer in? uences in the instruction of body image. Regarding familial in? uences, 2 primary mechanisms have been proposed enate modeling of dysfunctional eating attitudes and behavior, and parents in? uence over their children by direct transmission of weight-related attitudes and opinions, such as comments or teasing. There has been sign for both mechanisms in adolescent samples.When compared with m differents of daughters in a nonclinical control group, mothers of adolescent girls with disordered eating patterns showed greater eating disturbance, had a longer storey of dieting, and wanted their daughters to lose more weight (Pike and Rodin, 1991). Rieves and Cash (1996) found that daughters eating disturbances were related to their perceptions of maternal concern with appearance and preoccupation with being overweight. These studies bring up that adolescent girls whitethorn be modeling dysfunctional eating attitudes and behaviors from their parents. There is evidence that parents in? ence their adolescents eating disturbances and body image through direct transmission of weight-related attitudes and opinions. Thelen and Cormier (1995) found that mothers and fathers encouragement of weight control were related to daughters bank to be thinner, daughters weight, and dieting behaviors. When actual body weight was controlled statistic ally, only the human relationship amidst daughters dieting and fathers encouragement to diet remained signi? cant. Direct enatic comments about childrens weight had a strong relation with childrens body image, especially mothers comments about their daughters (Smolak et al. 1999). Thus, it appears that both maternal and paternal in? uences may be relevant to the development of body image concerns and related issues. These ? ndings suggest that parents can in? uence their attitudes and opinions of weight through direct transmission, although the relative strikingness of mothers versus fathers has yet to be established. Negative verbal commentary within the family, besides known as teasing, has received attention recently. comb-out can be considered an indirect transmission of maternal(p) attitudes and opinions. In a sample of lder adolescent college students, enate teasing of females, exclusively not of males, was related to body image dissatisfaction (Schwartz et al. , 1999) . In addition, high(prenominal)(prenominal) levels of teasing and appearance-related feedback predicted high levels of psychological disturbance. Taken together, these studies all tear down to the relationships betwixt adolescents body image concerns and parental attitudes and behaviors. Few studies, however, have addressed these issues in younger children. sexual activity Differences in Peer and enate In? uences PEER INFLUENCES ON BODY IMAGE The same point can be made for peer in? uences on body image.Although signi? cant relationships have been found in samples of adolescents, few studies have explored these issues in younger children. When investigating adolescents, one convey found that adolescents disturbed eating and weight concerns were related to the dieting and weight control strategies of peers as well as to the amount they inform talking with peers about dieting (Levine et al. , 1994). In addition, adolescent girls reported their peers as one of the primary source s of information on weight control and dieting (Desmond et al. , 1986). Adolescent girls, more so than adolescent boys, worried about their weight, ? ure, and popularity with peers (Wadden et al. , 1991). Negative verbal commentary by peers has been explored in relation to body image disturbance. tetchy by peers seems to have a strong in? uence on the development of eating and weight concerns (Rieves and Cash, 1996 Thompson, 1996 Thompson and Heinberg, 1993). rag by peers tends to be common during childishness with physical appearance and weight as the primary focus. Cash (1995) reported that 72% of college women recalled being bug as children, usually with respect to their facial features or body weight and shape.In a chew over of adolescent girls, Cattarin and Thompson (1994) found that teasing was a signi? cant predictor of boilers suit appearance dissatisfaction above and beyond the in? uence of age, maturational status, and level of obesity. In one of the few studies done with children, Oliver and Thelen (1996) found that childrens perceptions of peers negative messages and increased likability by being thin in? uenced their body image and weight concerns. Overall, peers attitudes and teasing appear to in? uence body image concerns. Taken together, these studies suggest patterns of familial and peer in? ence on the development of body image concerns. Little is known, however, about the associations of these issues within young children. Even less is known about how familial and peer in? uences are related to body image concerns and psychological functioning in young girls versus young boys. THE CURRENT STUDY On the basis of the ? ndings with adolescent and young adult populations, the current field of force extends these research questions to preadolescent girls and boys. Because the majority of previous research was defineed to maternal in? ences on body image (Phares, 1996), the current need will also extend this roue of research to explore pa ternal in? uences on body image. It was hypothesized that gender effects would be revealed concerning young chil- 423 drens body image concerns, with young girls reporting more body dissatisfaction and weight-appearance-related concerns than young boys. It was expected that both girls and boys who reported higher(prenominal) levels of body image concerns would show more psychological problems as exhibited by higher levels of depression and overturn levels of perceived competence. Both familial in? uences and peer in? ences were expected to be related to girls and boys body image and eating concerns. METHOD Participants A sum total of 141 children (64 boys and 77 girls) from two public elementary schools in a large urban orbit in the southeast participated in the study. On the basis of a male monarch analysis (? level = 0. 05, power = 0. 80, and a medium effect size), it was intractable that a minimum sample size of 64 boys and 64 girls would be equal to test the hypotheses (C ohen, 1992). The mean age of the overall sample was 9. 23 years (SD = 1. 08) and did not differ between boys (M = 9. 31 SD = 1. 04) and girls (M = 9. 7 SD = 1. 12 t(139) = 0. 79 p = 0. 434). The sample was ethnically diverse (63. 1% Caucasian, 21. 3% African American, 12. 8% Hispanic/Latino/Latina, 0. 7% Asian American, and 2. 1% other). With respect to grade level, 14. 2% were in the second grade, 44. 0% were in the third grade, 27. 6% were in the fourth grade, and 14. 2% were in the ? fth grade. The diffusion of girls and boys did not differ for race/ethnicity or for grade level ( ps 0. 05). A total of 77 mothers and 48 fathers participated in the study. Measures Family In? uences deuce measures were used to assess functioning within the family.The Perceptions of Teasing outperform (POTS) is a revised and extended reading of the Physical Appearance Related Teasing Scale (Thompson et al. , 1995). The measure has been used with children as young as 10 years old, in that locatio nfore, the 8- and 9-year-old participants in this study were younger than previous participants who absolute the POTS. The weight unit Teasing Scale, which consists of 6 questions concerned with the frequency of appearancerelated teasing, was used in the current study. Participants answered these questions for their mother and father separately, and scores were totaled for an overall frequency of parental teasing score. high add up on this 5-point scale re? ect greater frequency of negative verbal commentary. Coef? cient ? s in the current study were adequate for 424 reports of mothers (0. 72) and fathers (0. 84). Note that only 24% of the children in this sample scored above a 0 on this measure. Children, mothers, and fathers stainless the Family History of take in (FHE-Child and FHE-Parent Moreno and Thelen, 1993). Both versions of the FHE are scored along a 5-point Likert scale and are used to assess attitudes concerning body shape and weight, dieting, and familial eating pa tterns and behaviors.The parent version assesses parents perceptions whereas the child version focuses on the childs perception of the family. Higher numbers re? ect greater familial concern with body shape and weight. Reliabilities in the current study were adequate based on the coef? cient ? for children (0. 80), mothers (0. 77), and fathers (0. 75). Peer In? uences Children realised the entry of Peer In? uence on eat Concerns (IPIEC Oliver and Thelen, 1996), which is a 30-item measure of peer in? uence on childrens eating and body shape concerns.The measure consists of 5 factors Messages, Interactions/Girls, Interactions/Boys, Likability/Girls, and Likability/Boys. The Messages factor re? ects the frequency with which children receive negative messages from peers regarding their body or eating behaviors. The Interactions factors address the frequency with which children interact with peers (boys and girls) about weight and eating habits. The Likability factors measure the degr ee to which children believe that being thin will increase the degree to which they are liked by their peers (boys and girls).Items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale, where higher numbers re? ect greater peer in? uence. For the present study, total mean scale scores of all items were used to calculate a total peer in? uence score. The coef? cient ? in the current study (0. 94) was strong. obesity Level The Quetelets Index of Fatness is a body great deal index (BMI) that is computed for each child with the following formula weight/(squared height). The Quetelets Index is used routinely as an index of adiposity and is correspond highly with skinfold and other fatness measures.Height and weight were induceed by self-report. preceding research has shown that young adolescents self-reports are highly correlated with actual measuring sticks of weight and height (Brooks-Gunn et al. , 1987 Field et al. , 2002). alimentation Disturbance and Body range Children correct the ingest d isturbance Inventory for Children (EDI-C Garner, 1984), which measures self- Phares, Steinberg, and Thompson perceptions of eating disturbances and body image. Items are answered on a 6-point Likert scale and subscales are averaged to produce mean scale scores. trio of the eight subscales were used in the present study set out for scantiness (excessive concern with dieting, preoccupation with weight, and extreme fear of weight gain), Body Dissatisfaction (dissatisfaction with overall shape and with the size of those body regions of most concern to individuals with eating disorders), and bulimia (thinking about and move in uncontrollable overeating, or binging behaviors). Coef? cient ? s were adequate in the current sample for the Drive for Thinness subscale (0. 83), the Body Dissatisfaction subscale (0. 63), and the bulimia subscale (0. 76).On all subscales, higher numbers re? ect higher levels of body image concerns or related behaviors. mental Functioning Children completed 2 measures that assess their psychological functioning. The Childrens first Inventory (CDI Kovacs, 1992) is a widely used self-report measure of affective, cognitive, and behavioral symptoms of depression in children. Items are scores on a 0- to 2-point scale, with higher scores re? ecting higher levels of depression. The total CDI score, which showed good reliability in the current sample (coef? cient ? = 0. 91) was used. Children also completed the Self-Perception Pro? e for Children (Harter, 1985), which assesses childrens perceptions of themselves across different domains. For the current study, the innovation-wide self-worth subscale was used. Note that the spheric self-worth scale consists of questions that are separate from any of the other domains (e. g. , the physical appearance domain is not subsumed under the global self-worth rating). Higher scores on the 4-point scale re? ect higher perceptions of global self-worth. Adequate reliability (coef? cient ? = 0. 79) was sho wn in the current sample. Procedures Active parental consent and child assent were given for involvement in the study. one time consent and assent were obtained and data collection was initiated, no children dropped out of the study nor did any children refuse to take part in the study. Participating children completed questionnaires in small groups at school. Examiners read each question loud and children put their answers on the questionnaires individually. Parents were mailed their questionnaires (the FHE-P and a brief demographics form) and were asked to return their completed questionnaires to the researchers in a postage-paid envelope. Multiple mail- Gender Differences in Peer and agnatic In? uences prorogue I.Means and t-Tests for Gender Comparisons Variable Body jalopy index (BMI) Body Dissatisfaction bulimia Drive for Thinness Family History of EatingChild Inventory of Peer In? uence on Eating Concerns Perceptions of TeasingFrequency Depression Global Self-Worth a Stati stically 425 Girls (n = 77), mean (SD) 18. 91 (3. 80) 20. 29 (10. 10) 13. 38 (7. 32) 18. 21 (9. 64) 19. 99 (8. 38) 1. 80 (0. 84) 1. 62 (4. 62) 48. 83 (12. 06) 19. 06 (4. 74) Boys (n = 64), mean (SD) 19. 01 (3. 80) 18. 38 (8. 83) 15. 05 (7. 63) 13. 13 (6. 61) 17. 56 (5. 54) 1. 66 (0. 73) 1. 33 (2. 97) 49. 13 (13. 47) 18. 92 (4. 75) t 0. 09 ? 1. 18 1. 32 ? 3. 58 ? 1. 98 ? . 02 ? 0. 44 0. 14 ? 0. 18 p 0. 932 0. 239 0. 188 0. 000a 0. 049a 0. 311 0. 660 0. 892 0. 859 signi? cant. ings were sent in an attempt to obtain maximum parental participation. The ? nal response rate was 54. 6% (n = 77) for mothers and 34. 0% (n = 48) for fathers. RESULTS Gender Comparisons As expected, girls showed more or lesswhat greater concern over weight and body image issues than did boys. Signi? cantly more girls (61. 0%) than boys (35. 9%) wanted to lose weight, ? 2 (2) = 13. 38, p 0. 001. As can be seen in add-in I, there were additional gender differences on body image, restriction, and disturbed eati ng behaviors measures.When compared with boys, girls reported a higher drive for thinness, t(139) = ? 3. 58 p 0. 001, and a more troubled family history of eating concerns, t(139) = ? 1. 98 p 0. 05 (i. e. , girls reported receiving more messages regarding weight and dieting from their parents than did boys). Girls and boys did not differ signi? cantly on body spate index, body dissatisfaction, bulimic behaviors, peers eating concerns, or frequency of parental teasing. There were also no gen- der differences in depressive symptoms or global selfworth. Thus, there was virtually limited hurt for gender differences.Relations Between Body Image and Psychological Functioning Correlational analyses were computed in order to investigate the relations between body image and psychological functioning. As can be seen in Table II, signi? cant correlations were revealed for all of the measures for girls and most of the measures for boys. Girls reports of body dissatisfaction, bulimic tenden cies, and drive for thinness were related to higher levels of depression and lower levels of global self-worth. For boys, body dissatisfaction was related to higher levels of depression and lower levels of global self-worth.bulimic tendencies were not significantly related to either depressive symptoms or global self-worth. Drive for thinness was related to lower levels of global self-worth unless was not signi? cantly related to depression. Thus, the expected pattern of results was found for girls consistently, and partial place upright was found for boys. Table II. Correlations Between Eating Disturbance and Psychological Functioning Variables 1 1. Body Dissatisfaction 2. Bulimia 3. Drive for Thinness 4. Family History of EatingChild 5. Inventory of Peer In? uences on Eating Concerns 6. Perceptions of TeasingFrequency 7. Depression 8.Global Self-Worth 0. 42 0. 42 0. 32? 0. 26? 0. 44 0. 37 ?0. 42 2 0. 47 0. 25? 0. 23 0. 10 0. 29? 0. 14 ? 0. 01 3 0. 56 0. 55 0. 67 0. 32? 0. 60 0. 19 ? 0. 39? 4 0. 53 0. 56 0. 58 0. 12 0. 41 ?0. 03 ? 0. 03 5 0. 49 0. 55 0. 48 0. 53 0. 18 0. 29? ?0. 21 6 0. 32 0. 34 0. 27? 0. 44 0. 38 0. 29? ?0. 37 7 0. 58 0. 60 0. 55 0. 63 0. 59 0. 45 ? 0. 58 8 ? 0. 64 ?0. 48 ?0. 49 ?0. 52 ?0. 52 ?0. 35 ?0. 71 Note. Boys are in the lower left quadrant and girls are in the upper expert quadrant. ? p 0. 5 p 0. 01 p 0. 001. 426 Relations Between enate In? uences, Peer In? uences, and Body Image Disturbance Table II also reports the results of correlations for parental in? uences, peer in? uences, and body image disturbance. For girls, all of the correlations were signi? cant. Speci? cally, girls body dissatisfaction, bulimia, and drive for thinness were related to higher levels of family history of eating concerns, peer in? uences on eating concerns, and perceptions of teasing. For boys, 7 of the 9 correlations were signi? cant. Speci? cally, boys body dissatisfaction was signi? antly related to higher levels of family history of e ating concerns, peer in? uences on eating concerns, and perceptions of teasing. Boys tendency toward bulimia was signi? cantly related to perceptions of teasing, but not family history or peer in? uences. Boys drive for thinness was related to family history, peer in? uences, and perceptions of teasing. Overall, there was somewhat more support for the connections between parental in? uences, peer in? uences, and body image disturbance for girls, but there was clear evidence of connections for boys when body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness were considered.Phares, Steinberg, and Thompson of family history and childrens reports of eating disturbance and body image concerns. These ? ndings suggest that childrens perceptions of family history and parents perceptions of family history are not related strongly. Missing agnatic Data To assess whether there were systematic differences between parents who did or did not participate, t tests were conducted to examine any possible diffe rences between children whose parents returned questionnaires and those children whose parents did not return questionnaires.With the exception of family history, t(139) = 2. 33, p 0. 02, no other signi? cant differences were revealed. Children whose parents returned questionnaires reported signi? cantly higher levels of family emphasis on weight and body shape (M = 20. 15, SD = 7. 90) than children whose parents did not return questionnaires (M = 17. 32, SD = 6. 20). There were no signi? cant differences between children with parental data and children without parental data on the following variables Body Dissatisfaction (from the EDI-C), Bulimia (from the EDI-C), Drive for Thinness (from the EDI-C), peer in? ences (from the IPIEC), or perceptions to teasing (from the POTS). Thus, the searching analyses with parental data are likely to be generalizable for all of the variables other than family history. Parental Data For exploratory purposes, paired t tests were conducted to exam ine the differences in mothers and fathers reports of parental in? uence regarding weight and body shape concerns. Mothers (M = 18. 57, SD = 5. 32) placed more emphasis on weight and body shape concerns than did fathers (M = 15. 94, SD = 5. 29), t(47) = ? 3. 96, p 0. 001. just examination of parental differences revealed that mothers reported placing more importance on weight and body image concerns than did fathers for both their daughters, t(29) = ? 2. 93, p 0. 006, and sons, t(27) = ? 2. 61, p 0. 01. These results suggest that, regardless of child gender, mothers tend to place more emphasis on weight and dieting than do fathers. To examine the relationship between childrens selfreports and parental reports, correlations were conducted for parents reports of family history of eating concerns and childrens reports of eating disturbance and psychological functioning.A signi? cant correlation was revealed for mothers reports of family history and childrens reports of family histor y, r (77) = 0. 25, p 0. 05. These results suggest that mothers and children perceived similar familial in? uences regarding weight and body shape. In addition, signi? cant correlations were revealed for maternal report of family history and childrens report of global self-worth, r (77) = ? 0. 27, p 0. 05. No other signi? cant correlations were revealed for maternal or paternal reportsDISCUSSION Overall, the results of this study support and extend previous research suggesting that both parental and peer in? uences are related to the development of body image and weight concerns in preadolescent girls and boys. It is likely that both factors play an integral part in childrens formations of maladaptive beliefs, attitudes, and expectations concerning weight, physical appearance, and body image. Further, there appear to be some differences but some similarities in how girls and boys experience these issues.Similar to previous research, girls in this study exhibited a somewhat greater degree of concern regarding weight and body image issues than did boys. Not only were they more aware of issues surrounding weight and dieting, but girls were more active in attempts to become and/or remain thin. In addition, it appears that girls received more messages within the family setting regarding weight and body image concerns. Although most investigations of body image concerns tend to recruit only female participants (e. g. , Attie and Brooks-Gunn, 1989 Cattarin and Thompson, 1994), the studies of gender differencesGender Differences in Peer and Parental In? uences in body image have used primarily adolescent samples (e. g. , Childress et al. , 1993 reviewed in Cohane and Pope, 2001). The present results support similar ? ndings for preadolescent children, which indicates that these gender differences begin to develop at an earlier age, prior to any pubertal neuters (Collins, 1991 Oliver and Thelen, 1996 Shapiro et al. , 1997 Wood et al. , 1996). The results of this stu dy provide support for a relationship between body image concerns and depressive symptoms (Herzog et al. 1992) and self-esteem (Wood et al. , 1996). Overall, children who expressed higher levels of body image disturbance reported higher rates of depressive symptoms and lower levels of global self-worth. Although this pattern was more perspicuous in girls, the same pattern existed for boys when body dissatisfaction was considered. Prior research has revealed support for both parental (Sanftner et al. , 1996 Thelen and Cormier, 1995) and peer (Cattarin and Thompson, 1994 Oliver and Thelen, 1996) in? uences on childrens eating and body image concerns. This study found support for peer and parental in? ences for girls and to a lesser extent, for boys. Most of the research on peer in? uences has been conducted with adolescent populations of girls (Levine et al. , 1994). In this study, similar patterns emerged for boys and girls when body dissatisfaction (as opposed to bulimic tendencies ) were evaluated. It may be that preadolescent boys are struggling with body dissatisfaction, but in such a manner that is not captured by the measurement of bulimic tendencies. The measurement of parental teasing from the POTS measure was particularly utilitarian in helping to understand boys experiences.A number of previous studies have documented the connections between negative verbal commentary and body image concerns in girls (Cattarin and Thompson, 1994 Schwartz et al. , 1999). In the current study, boys perceptions of parental teasing were related to higher levels of body dissatisfaction, bulimic tendencies, drive for thinness, family history of eating concerns, and depression and lower levels of global self-worth. Thus, further exploration of perceptions of parental teasing in both boys and girls may be fruitful. On the basis of the results of this study, the implications for prevention and intervention are numerous.Given the wealth of support for the existence of body imag e concerns in preadolescent children (Collins, 1991 Shapiro et al. , 1997 Thelen et al. , 1992 Wood et al. , 1996), it is imperative to address weight and body image concerns with children prior to adolescence. Psychoeducational programs could be helpful to inform children of the parental, peer, and sociocultural in? uences on their attitudes and beliefs concerning weight and physical appearance. Several universal psychoeducational programs 427 have been instituted and evaluated for school-aged children (reviewed in Levine and Smolak, 2001).Although this study found some gender differences in preadolescent childrens experiences of body image disturbance, the common pattern of associations among variables for both boys and girls would suggest that preventive efforts could be targeted to girls and boys together. Intervention programs are also necessary given the connections between familial in? uences and body image concerns in young children and the resultant connections between body image concerns and eating disorders (Cattarin and Thompson, 1994 Steinhausen and Vollrath, 1993 Thompson et al. 1999). Parents need to be educated about the negative consequences of their own weight and body image issues on the development of related problems in their children (Archibald et al. , 1999). Treatment programs should take family functioning into account and should address the strong connections between body image concerns and poor psychological functioning (Steinberg and Phares, 2001). There are several limitations to the study indicating that these results should be interpreted with caution. First, the ross-sectional personality of the study precludes interpretations related to causality. For example, it could be that higher levels of depression lead to higher rates of body dissatisfaction in both boys and girls. A prospective study of girls and boys from early childhood to adolescence and even adulthood could help answer the bearing of causality. In addition, becaus e there was a signi? cant difference in family history of eating concerns (FHE-C) between children with and without completed parental data, the preliminary analyses of parental reports have to be viewed cautiously.Although other studies have found relatively few differences between participating and nonparticipating mothers and fathers (Phares, 1995), the differences in this sample suggest that the parental data may not be representative of the larger population. This study attempted to limit common method variance by including parents rather than just relying on childrens self-reports. This inclusion of parents, however, led to other dif? culties. Future studies in this area could bene? t from more intense efforts to recruit and maintain parents for participation in research.Even with these limitations, this study provided support for parental and peer in? uences on the development of body image disturbance in preadolescent girls and boys. It is likely that both peers and family m embers contribute to the development of body image disturbance and weight concerns of young children. Although girls appear to be at greater risk for these concerns, this study suggests that attention to both boys and girls development of body image concerns is warranted. 428 ACKNOWLEDGMENT This study was completed as part of a masters thesis by the ? rst author under the direction of the second and third authors.REFERENCES Archibald, A. B. , Graber, J. A. , and Brooks-Gunn, J. (1999). Associations among parentadolescent relationships, pubertal growth, dieting, and body image in young adolescent girls A short-term longitudinal study. J. Res. Adolesc. , 9 395415. Attie, I. , and Brooks-Gunn, J. (1989). Development of eating problems in adolescent girls A longitudinal study. Dev. Psychol. 25 70 79. Brooks-Gunn, J. , Warren, M. P. , Rosso, J. , and Gargiulo, J. (1987). Validity of self-report measures of girls pubertal status. 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